Cognitivism

(KB Home Page)

What is Learning? (Definition):

• The Cognitive Development theory defines learning a relatively permanent change in mental representations or associations due to experience. 
• It involves the building of connections in schema through the processes of assimilation and accommodation.
• Since learning involves the formation of mental representations or associations, the changes caused by learning are not always reflected in behaviors.  However, inferences about unobservable mental processes can be drawn from behavior.
• Some learning processes are unique to humans, such as language

Major Assumptions of Cognitivism:

• Learning is a process of relating new information to previously learned information
• Learning involves the formation of mental representations or associations that are not always reflected in behaviors 
• Inferences about unobservable mental processes can be drawn from behavior 
• Cognitive processes are the focus of study
• Individuals are actively involved in the learning process, e.g., processing, assimilating, accommodating
• Knowledge is organized and stored in schema (closely connected ideas) and / or scripts
• Some learning processes are unique to human beings, e.g. language

Key Terms:

• Schema: basic structure of human knowledge; a mental unit that represents a class of similar actions or thoughts.
• Meaningful learning: by relating new information to information stored in long-term memory people find meaning in that new information.
• Elaboration: when people receive new information they often impose their own interpretation on it, elaboration is a process of learning more than the material is actually presented.
• Assimilation: individual interacts with an object or event in a way that is consistent with an existing schema. Second grader who develops a scheme for adding 2 apples +3 apples to make 5 apples may apply his scheme to a situation involving the addition of $2 +$3 to make $5.
• Accommodation: individual modifies an existing schema or forms a new one to account for a new event. A student calls a spider and ‘insect’ must change his schema of spider when he learns that insects have 6 legs and spiders have 8 legs.
• Mental Models: an individual’s internal representation of how particular concepts and principles interrelate or how specific systems work – that reflect the structure of external reality.
• Hierarchical knowledge: long-term memory storage structure arrangement where more general information superordinate information at the top of the hierarchy and more specific subordinate information below it. 
• Propositional network: long-term memory storage structure in which propositions and their interrelationships are stored in a network-like fashion.
• Dual Storage Model: information selection and storage system of human memory. It consists of sensory registry, short-term memory, working memory, long-term memory, retrieval, and control mechanisms. 
• Sensory Registration: first component in the dual-coding model that holds incoming information long enough for it to undergo preliminary process. This information can be visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, taste, etc.
• Short Term / Working Memory: first processing point of information after sensory reception. Generally information processed (engaging new information with information stored in long-term memory) for less than 1 minute is lost, more than 1 minute moves into long-term memory. 
• Encoding: modifying information being stored in memory so that it is ‘easy’ to recall. This requires changing the form of the information. 
• Storage: process of ‘putting’ new information in memory.
• Retrieval: process by which people ‘find’ information previously acquired for use.
• Zone of Proximal development: a range of tasks that one cannot yet perform independently but can perform with help and guidance of others.

Theorists and Their Contributions:

• Edward Tolman (1886 - 1959):
• Internal mental phenomena in explanations of learning
• Learning can occur without reinforcement, change in behavior
• Behavior is purposive; goal-directed
• Learning results in an organized body of information – cognitive maps
• Gestalt (1920s - 1950s):
• Perception is different from reality
• Whole is more than the sum of its parts
• Organisms structure and organize experiences
• Organisms is predisposed to organize experience in particular ways – law of proximity, law of closure,  law of  pragnanz
• Learning involves formation of memory traces
• Problem solving involves restructuring  and insight
• Jean Piaget (1886 - 1980):
• Focus on mental events, logical reasoning and structure of knowledge
• Active processors of information 
• Knowledge - structures that change with development - scheme
• Processes through which people interact with the environment are constant
• assimilation: modify perception of environment to fit scheme
• accommodation: modify scheme to fit environment
• Relate prior knowledge to the material to be learned
• People are intrinsically motivated to make sense of the world
• Cognitive development occurs in stages, controlled by maturation
• Lev Vygotsky (1896 - 1934):
• Complex mental processes begin as social activities, internalize mental activities
• ZPD Zone of  Proximal Development
• Scaffolding – guidance that enables students to engage in activities inside ZPD

Key Principles of the Cognitivism:

• Sensory Registration: first component in the dual-coding model that holds incoming information long enough for it to undergo preliminary process. This information can be visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, taste, etc.
• Dual Storage Model: information selection and storage system of human memory. It consists of sensory registry, short-term memory, working memory, long-term memory, retrieval, and control mechanisms.
• Short Term / Working Memory: first processing point of information after sensory reception. Generally information processed (engaging new information with information stored in long-term memory) for less than 1 minute is lost, more than 1 minute moves into long-term memory.
• Schema: basic structure of human knowledge; a mental unit that represents a class of similar actions or thoughts.
• Hierarchical knowledge: long-term memory storage structure arrangement where more general information superordinate information at the top of the hierarchy and more specific subordinate information below it.
• Assimilation: individual interacts with an object or event in a way that is consistent with an existing schema. Second grader who develops a scheme for adding 2 apples +3 apples to make 5 apples may apply his scheme to a situation involving the addition of $2 +$3 to make $5.
• Accommodation: individual modifies an existing schema or forms a new one to account for a new event. A student calls a spider and ‘insect’ must change his schema of spider when he learns that insects have 6 legs and spiders have 8 legs.

Instructional Theories:

• Meaningful Reception Theory
• Nine Events of Instruction: 1) Gain attention; 2) inform of objectives; 3) stimulate prior knowledge recall; 4) present stimulus; 5) provide learning guideline; 6) elicit performance; 7) provide feedback; 8) assess performance; and 9) enhance retention and transfer
• Organize new information to help learners process it
• Make learning meaningful to help processing
• Incorporate the use of advanced organizers
• Incorporates concept maps and other organizing tools
• Uses signals to help learners recall previous knowledge
• Activates prior knowledge 
• Requires verbalization (oral or written) of new knowledge
• Includes rehearsal, repetition, and review of new information
• Requires learners to enact new knowledge in some way.

References:

- “Handout Cognitive Learning Definitions” Word Document by Tiffany A. Koszalka
- PowerPoint and class notes throughout the semester.

Learning Situation:

• A baseball coach is teaching his player how to properly field a ground ball. The player is having a hard time getting the simple steps down of fielding a ground ball since he has not been getting in front of the ball and the ball has been going past him each time. The coach and the player are both out on the field together with another coach hitting ground balls to them. The coach takes the glove from the player and has the other coach hit him a ground ball. He gets into the proper positioning to field the ground ball and puts his glove down in the correct spot as the ball hits directly into his glove. After a couple of times watching his coach do this, the player then tries to do what his coach just did. He holds the glove the same way as his coach did, he is in the same stance as his coach was in, and he approached the ground ball the same way. Although it wasn’t perfect the first few times, you could tell that the player was improving as some of the ground balls were finding the center of his glove. The coach would critique and make corrections after each repetition. When the player would successfully field the ground ball, the coach would cheer and tell the player he did a great job. This continues as the player practices over and over the same way his coach showed him how to field the ground ball, and the coach would critique the player and give him feedback after each repetition.
• Scaffolding: The coach helps the player properly field the ball because he can obviously not do it without someone teaching him and giving him feedback.
• Disequilibrium: The player was unsuccessful in fielding ground balls so in order to be successful he had to go out of his comfort zone and learn something new from his coach.
• Cognitive maps: The player maps out each step in his head: how he is suppose to stand, how he is suppose to run to the ball, and how he is suppose to hold his glove in order to field the ground ball.
• Accommodation: The player either creates a whole new schema for how to field a ground ball or he just alters the existing schema.
• Assimilation: The player uses the coaching of his coach as the schema on how to field a ground ball properly and then that schema becomes how the boy thinks about fielding a ground ball from now on.

Observation Checklist:

Observation	Level of Occurrence: 1 - low, 5 - high	Comments
The coach helps the player recall what he had previously tried to do.
The coach gives out new information to the player.
Assimilation and accommodation occur in the learning process.
The player forms new schema or just alters, adds to his already existing schema.
The player practices in order to retain the knowledge and gain feedback from his coach.
The players continues to practice in order to properly field the ground ball the new way the coach showed him.
The coach evaluates and gives feedback to the player to check progress of grasping the new information.
The player realizes that what he has done in the past does not work, therefore he needs proper instruction.
The player can use  the information learned from the coach later on.

Reflection:

  As I stated in my reflection for Behaviorism, I do not agree that the cognitive processes should be ignored, therefore, having learned and studied the Cognitive Development theory I was refreshed. This theory is probably my favorite because I am a firm believer that we as human beings having the minds and brains that we have can not only obtain information from our experiences, but also from our own inferences and thoughts on certain situations that happen to us, around us, to someone else, etc. Cognitivism digs deeper than Behaviorism by moving past the thought of learning occurring just because of behaviors, and instead focuses on the organization of what is being learned. 

     The aspect of Cognitivism that I enjoyed the most was schema because it was so fascinating to learn and study how the brain learns a new thing and either alters what is already existing or actually creates a whole new schema for what is being learned that moment. So, the brain is basically made up of a big concept mad that extends infinitely with information about everything the person has learned. Also, the person can tap into those schema and make changes, add to the schema, or make a whole new schema. To me, that was the most fascinating aspect of Cognitivism.

(KB Home Page)